A Brief History of Psilocybin

Psilocybin is naturally occurring in a number of mushroom species, primarily those in the Psilocybe genus, from which it was first isolated (Hofmann et al., 1958).

These mushrooms are found around the world and although they were only introduced to Western science in 1957, they have been used since time immemorial by Indigenous Peoples around the world.

Various Indigenous cultures in Central America—such as the Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya, and Nahua Peoples, but especially the Mazatec—have long utilized ritual, spirituality, and healing as inseparable components of the same process; in taking psilocybin-containing mushrooms, curanderos or curanderas prepare an individual for the psychedelic medicine (Echevarría, 1979; Heim & Wasson, 1958; Wasson, 1957). These rituals aimed to resolve social dysfunction, as well as to provide new perspectives on emotional and mental wellbeing for those involved (Echevarría, 1979; Heim & Wasson, 1958; Wasson, 1957).

Despite Spanish invaders prohibiting the use of these sacred mushrooms, they continue to be ritually used today by a number of different Indigenous groups (Guzmán, 2008; Ramírez-Cruz et al., 2006). Within these communities, the traditional use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms are focused on the treatment of rheumatism and anxiety, as well as for pains of the teeth and stomach (Bautista-Gonz & Moreno-Fuentes, 2014; Guzmán et al., 2009).

Video: María Sabina, the Shaman who Introduced Americans to Mushrooms

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María Sabina introduced Westerners to psilocybin-containing mushrooms, and this video walks through the story of this event and the horrific impact it had on the life of María Sabina and her community. What happened to María Sabina is a clear example of why Western science needs to be more mindful and respectful of Indigenous plant medicines and Indigenous cultural practices.

Magic Mushrooms in the 20^th and 21^st Centuries

Psilocybin was first isolated from the mushroom psilocybe mexicana in 1959 by Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist responsible for the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann worked for Sandoz Pharmaceutical Company at the time who subsequently marketed and sold pure psilocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide for use in psychedelic-assisted therapy.

Psilocybin came to be widely used in experimental research by Western science in the 1960s, with a great deal of interest in its potential for the treatment of mental health conditions, and as a facilitator for therapy (Metzner, 2005). Psilocybe mushrooms, however, soon came to be used much more widely among the general public as a recreational drug, leading to psilocybin (and psilocin) being classified as illegal substances in many places. When psilocybin and psilocybin-producing mushrooms became scheduled in 1970, research was largely discontinued with some research continuing until 1976 (Yensen & Dryer, 1992).

Research has since continued in recent years as part of the so-called "psychedelic renaissance" commencing with a landmark study from John Hopkins University published in 2006 (Nichols, 2004; Griffiths et al., 2006). The use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms has since further spread around the globe, being employed for a range of purposes, including for healing mental health conditions, inducing mystical-type experiences and personal growth, and recreational use. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been shown to be the most commonly used natural psychoactive in some contemporary settings (Aixalá et al., 2020; Fatur, 2021).

Cultural Safety and Humility

Possibly because of their traditional use among multiple Indigenous groups or due to their widespread contemporary use around the globe, Indigenous Peoples have not been fairly compensated for the use of their traditional knowledge and biological resources. Although many nations have signed treaties related to the rights Indigenous Peoples hold in regards to their traditional biological resources, these groups of traditional users and knowledge holders have not been included in the patenting process (Gerber et al., 2021). Ultimately, this is an important element that needs to be addressed to combat the ongoing exploitation of Indigenous Peoples, their traditional knowledge, and their biological resources.

Reflection

Reflect about how you've benefitted from the traditional knowledge of sacred plants and medicine. What can you do in acknowledgement and reciprocity for what you've received?

References

Aixalá, M., Ona, G., Parés, Ò., & Bouso, J. C. (2020). Patterns of use, desired effects, and mental health status of a sample of natural psychoactive drug users. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 27(3), 191-198.

Bautista-Gonz, J. A., & Moreno-Fuentes, A. (2014). Los hongos medicinales de Mexico. In A. Moreno- Fuentes & R. Garibay-Orijel (Eds.), La Etnomicología en Mexico, estado del arte (pp. 91-109). UAEH & UNAM, CDMX.

Echevarría, N. (1979). María Sabina, Mujer Espíritu. Colecci on IMCINE, Centro de Producci on de Cortometraje Estudios Churubusco Azteca.

Fatur, K. (2021). Peculiar plants and fantastic fungi: An ethnobotanical study of the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms in Slovenia. PLoS One, 16(1), e0245022. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245022

Gerber, K., Flores, I. G., Ruiz, A. C., Ali, I., Ginsberg, N. L., & Schenberg, E. E. (2021). Ethical Concerns about Psilocybin Intellectual Property. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci, 4(2), 573-577. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00171

Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., MCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/press_releases/2006/griffithspsilocybin.pdf

Guzmán, G. (2008). Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview. Economic Botany, 62(3), 404- 412.

Guzmán, G., Horak, E., Halling, R., & Ramírez-Guill, F. (2009). Further studies on Psilocybe from the Caribean, Central America and South America, with descriptions of new species and remarks to new records. Sydowia, 61(2), 215-242.

Heim, R., & Wasson, R. G. (1958). Les champignons hallucinogenes du Mexique: Études ethnologiques, taxinomiques, biologiques, physiologiques et chimiques. Archives du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 7(6), 1-445.

Hofmann, A., Heim, R., Brack, A., & Kobel, H. (1958). [Psilocybin, a psychotropic substance from the Mexican mushroom Psilicybe mexicana Heim]. Experientia, 14(3), 107-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02159243

Metzner, R. (2005). Sacred Mushrooms of Visions: Teonanácatl: A Sourcebook on the Psilocybin Mushroom. Park St. Press.

Nichols, D. E. (2004). Hallucinogens. Pharmacol Ther, 101(2), 131-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002

Ramírez-Cruz, V., Guzman, G., & Ramírez-Guill, F. (2006). Las especies del genero Psilocybe conocidas del Estado de Oaxaca, su distribuci on y relaciones etnicas. Rev. Mex. Micol., 23, 27-36.

Wasson, R. G. (1957). Seeking the magic mushroom: A New York banker goes to Mexico's mountains to participate in the age-old rituals of indians who chew strange growths that produce visions. Life, 42, 100-120.

Yensen, R. & Dryer, D. (1992). Thirty Years of Psychedelic Research: The Spring Grove Experiment and Its Sequels. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309477954_Thirty_Years_of_Psychedelic_Research_The_Spring_Grove_Experiment_and_Its_Sequels/citation/download